Battle of Algiers Essay Example for Free

Battle of Algiers Essay One of the problems that continue to be a part of our modern society is the act of terrorism, which has played a major role in our modern warfare that continues to exist in the Middle Eastern regions. It is sadly a successful instrument that has been exploited by many terrorist groups through the fierce history of mankind. This method has often been approached when confronted by immeasurable odds and crushing military force that cannot be overcome by conventional methods. This act of Guerilla warfare has been witnessed before in countries such as Vietnam, Laos and in recent days Afghanistan and Iraq. The ideology behind Guerilla warfare is not only an act of retribution against the enemy forces but also an act, which the radical groups anticipate will persuade others to fall in line with their belief. In the movie, The Battle of Algiers, the same message is being persuaded by the FLN, when they rise up to go to war against the French army. The filmmaker Gillo Pontecorvo captures their act of retribution against the French colonizer with such scenes as, â€Å"the drive by shooting of French citizens in an ambulance† or the suicide bombings at different locations crowded with French citizens. These scenes convey a message, which is rarely shown in modern films today, as the scenes not only create a positive attitude towards the act of vengeance but also makes it seem acceptable to take the lives of innocent individuals in order to gain the freedom of your nation and your people. Nevertheless, Stone in his article of Reel Terrorism portrays these acts quite differently as he envisions them from the viewpoint of an Islamic retribution rather than a revolution of freedom through war. In his article, Stone continues to portray an image of Islam being at the center of the film, which in my opinion is absolutely incorrect, as it not only takes away the freedom that these men and women fought for but also creates the central idea that the only reason the people of Algiers rose against the colonists is not because of oppression but rather because they wanted to bring back Islamic principles in order to purify their nation, which had been tainted by Western influence. In my opinion Stone focuses more on the metaphors that he himself creates from the movie, which seem to be greatly influenced from what the western media has portrayed the Middle Eastern freedom fighter to be in this modern warfare. Stone also continues to use this characterization of Islam within the movie in relationship to the ongoing war between America and terrorism. In the article, he mentions that it seemed reasonable to invade Afghanistan that was ruled by the Taliban, who are cruel to women, sheltered Bin Laden, and hated Americans. This quotation by Stone not only approves the act of vengeance, which he himself finds to be inappropriate within the movie but also makes it seem reasonable for Americans to become the colonizer within Afghanistan and to change their religious faith to be more acceptable in society. Nevertheless, Stones usage of characterization of Islam within the movie takes away the message that Pontecorvo was trying to portray in his movie, which was to show the audience the stand that people have to take against the colonizer in order to preserve their cultural heritage from becoming extinct.

The India-Pakistan Relationship

The India-Pakistan Relationship India Pakistan relationship has been marred with conflict ever since their independence and both the nations have been involved in three major wars till date in1947-48, 1965 and 1971. In 1998, both countries conducted nuclear tests to enter the nuclear powered nations club. This led a few number of experts to profess that the nuclear deterrence would lead to stabilization of conflict in the sub continent and result in establishment of peace. This kind of deterrence was witnessed by the world for the second time, the first being nuclear deterrence between the cold war foes of NATO and Warsaw Pact countries and to be more specific the US and USSR. Experts from the field of international relations who applied the theories developed in the cold war era Europe to the South Asian rivalry professed that the chances of conventional conflict using regular forces are a thing of the past in case of these two nations. This theory was further reinforced by the Kargil war and the standoff subsequ ent to the attack on Indian Parliament in 2001. In 1999 Pakistan occupied a large number of posts after crossing the LOC in the Kargil sector, threatening the crucial Srinagar Leh highway using regular troops in the guise of Mujahids. The Indian Army reacted to the situation by regrouping and launching Operation Vijay, and started to recapture the posts by forcibly removing Pakistani troops occupying the posts. This operation was also accompanied by a full scale mobilisation of its military forces by India; however despite the tough posturing by India the war remain limited to the Kargil sector. This was primarily because of tremendous pressure mounted by the international community, especially the US fearing that this conflict may escalate to a nuclear plain. In 2001 the same massive mobilisation was witnessed by both the countries when they had their forces deployed against each other ready for combat. This time in December 2001 following the attack on the Indian parliament by a group of militants trained in Pakistan. The situation reached a flash point when on 14 May 2002, when another terrorist attack on the Indian Army camp in Kaluchak threatened to start a war between the two nuclear neighbours. In this instance also, as seen in Operation Vijay, India despite posturing did not take any punitive offensive action against Pakistan despite having all its forces in a completely mobilized state. The above incidents did reflect a situation where in Pakistan had effectively used the nuclear deterrence to attain strategic parity with India negating a conventional disadvantage and thus supposedly giving it immunity to conduct sub conventional operations without the fear of any retribution. Thus India to face major challenges in conducting sub conventional spectrum in Kashmir, which Pakistan initiated after covertly attaining the nuclear technology in the late 1980s. Its conventional strength negated, and with no option to retaliate India find itself in a position where it will have to work its way around this nuclear parity, so as to be able to stifle the Pakistan supported terrorism. Therefore, we need to carefully study the nuclear capability and doctrine of Pakistan in conjunction with the theories of nuclear deterrence, to work out ways for India to exploit its massive conventional superiority by utilizing it to escalate the conflict spectrum, such that it remains under the level of Total War. METHODOLOGY STATEMENT OF THE PROBLEM To analyze nuclear deterrence in India Pakistan relations. Explore the possibility of use of conventional forces by India to counter the sub conventional threat faced from Pakistan, while avoiding a nuclear war. HYPOTHESIS Having attained nuclear capability Pakistan has been acting with a presumption that Indias conventional superiority has been totally negated by the nuclear symmetry and has encouraged the Pakistani military elite to intensify the ongoing Proxy War in Jammu and Kashmir. This has had catastrophic consequences for India, which though enjoying substantial conventional superiority, is unable to use it to counter Pakistans sub conventional threat. It is therefore important to study the interaction between conventional and nuclear deterrence on the India Pakistan relations and generate credible conventional responses to the sub conventional conflict India finds itself embroiled in Jammu and Kashmir. JUSTIFICATION OF THE STUDY Indian armed forces along with paramilitary forces are deeply committed in counterinsurgency operations in Jammu Kashmir, which is fallout of the sub conventional operations by Pakistan in the state. This has been possible due to the fact, that Pakistan has been able to achieve strategic parity with India by attaining nuclear capability which affords it certain degree of immunity from direct retaliation through conventional means by Indian forces. Off late, the thought process in higher echelons of Indian leadership has been to ascertain What should be Indias response, should Pakistan continue with its sub conventional campaign? While a majority of international relation theorists who studied the nuclear deterrence during the cold war, suggest that the likelihood of a conventional conflict between two nuclear armed rivals are slim, as it leads to a situation of mutually assured destruction (MAD). However, it would be injudicious to apply these theories in their entirety in the Indo Pak context, as the conditions and realties that exist in South Asia are considerably different than that of the cold war. Thus there exists a window for vertical escalation of the ongoing sub conventional engagement which is below the nuclear threshold. This would however depend on Pakistans response to a conventional threat, as it the weaker party. Thus any suggested response for India should also carefully consider the Pakistani nuclear capability and doctrine as well, so as to work out practical options for use of conventional military and allow India to effectively counter its asymmetric threat. This study is thus aimed at ascertaining the possibility of a conventional war between India and Pakistan without it getting escalated to a total war. SCOPE The paper concentrates on analysing the effect of nuclear deterrence on India and Pakistan relations, applicability of various international relation theories on this relationship and possibility of use of conventional forces by India as counter to proxy war waged by Pakistan while staying below the nuclear threshold. METHODS OF DATA COLLECTION The methodology employed in this investigation to gather information and data was as follows: Scanning of literature on nuclear capability and doctrines of India and Pakistan. Study of various International Relation theories worked out to explain the superpower relations during the cold war. Scanning various articles and books by authors concerning the nuclear situation in South Asia. A bibliography of sources studied and referred has been appended at the end of the text. ORGANISATION OF THE DISSERTATION (CHAPTERISATION) The dissertation has been carried out in the following parts:- Chapter I Introduction. The background, introduction to the subject and methodology will be covered in this chapter. Chapter II Deterrence In Context Of India Pakistan Relations. This chapter will cover the theoretical aspects of deterrence and its applicability in the context of India Pakistan relationship. Chapter III Nuclear Peace Hypothesis : Manifestation in India Pakistan Relations. This chapter will study the hypothesis of nuclear peace as propounded by academic experts of international relations and analyse the India Pakistan relations in its light. Chapter IV Pakistans Nuclear Weapons Capability And Command Control Setup. This chapter deals with the nuclear weapons capability that Pakistan possesses, to include its weapon system and delivery platforms, as well as the nuclear command and control setup. Chapter V Nuclear Weapon Use by Pakistan : Probability and Scenarios. This chapter will concentrate on the probability of nuclear weapon use by Pakistan and the various scenarios in which they are likely to be used. Chapter VI Options Available To India For Use Of Conventional Forces. This chapter will study the options available with India to use conventional force to deter Pakistan from undertaking sub conventional operations in Kashmir. Chapter VII Conclusion. The conclusion of the paper and appropriate recommendations will be made in this chapter. CHAPTER II DETERRENCE IN CONTEXT OF INDIA PAKISTAN RELATIONS We will not prematurely or unnecessarily risk the costs of worldwide nuclear war in which even the fruits of victory would be ashes in our mouth. John F. Kennedy The word deterrence comes from the latin verb deterree, which means to frighten. It is an attempt to influence how and what an enemy thinks and does  [1]  . Thus deterrence is a state of mind that prevents a deterree from acting in a way a deterror considers harmful. In a simplistic form, deterrence is a crucial factor in the mind of someone trying to decide the benefits of executing a crime versus the likelihood and consequences of getting caught  [2]  . The success or failure of deterrence also depends upon how the message is conveyed by the deterror to the deterree. In order to elucidate this aspect, the situation before the two Gulf Wars needs to be considered and understood which highlights the importance of how the deterrence message is framed and understood, as well as how disastrous it can be to fail to understand the thinking of the other side. Before Saddam Hussain invaded Kuwait in August 1990, the US diplomatic and political positioning was such that it failed to give a clear message that it would react strongly to any Iraqi invasion. Hence failure to clearly convey deterrence between the sides, ultimately lead to the war. The example brings into play the lesser known twin of deterrence which is compellance  [3]  . Deterrence can also be defined as the prevention of action for fear of the consequences, brought about by the existence of a credible threat of unacceptable counteraction. Thus, it is designed to prevent something. Compellance on the other hand involves threat of consequences designed to cause the other party to reverse or to stop carrying out some unwanted action or activity, which has already occurred, the result is war. Similar analysis could be applied to the Cuban Missile Crisis, where initial misunderstandings lead to the failure of both deterrence and compellance. One could also use the word coercion to cover both deterrence and compellance. Another associated question  [4]  with the concept of deterrence which arises is How much is enough? Since deterrence is essentially a psychological phenomenon, it is not surprising that how much punishment is sufficient to deter another state, which has always been a controversial and an elastic standard. Types of Military Deterrence Military deterrence are of two kinds defensive (conventional) and by punitive (nuclear)  [5]  . Effective deterrence is a matter of convincing an opponent that certain harm to him will accompany the act one wishes to deter. Thus it amounts to the imposition of a calculus of risk and value on an opponent, such that the value of the act sought to be deterred does not exceed the risk, which is an assessment of the likelihood and the extent of harm. For deterrence to succeed, the enemy has to be persuaded that the deterror has the capacity to act, in a manner that it inflicts greater cost than the advantages to be won by attaining the objective, and that it would actually undertake the act if it is required to. However if the deterror takes the threat of retaliation into account, he can no longer deter all objectionable acts. Thus making it obligatory on the deterror to distinguish between those objectives of indispensable value such as national survival, and objects of relatively l ess importance/value. While in the overall gambit of geopolitics there are large number of instruments of state power which work to deter an adversary, to include but not limited to, political, economic, diplomatic, military power. However in purely military terms deterrence is of two types:- Conventional Deterrence. This is the deterrence accrued by a nation owing to it possessing a higher military strength, which would mean quality and quantity of hardware as well as trained military force. This spectrum of military power will include land, air and naval forces. This type of deterrence can be easily achieved by the nation which has a larger resource base both in terms of population as well as economic capital. Therefore, in a bilateral conflict the country which is larger in size tends to be the nation which generally has more deterrent potential (militarily), as it is assumed that it can not only maintain a larger force but would also be able to sustain the conflict much longer. Nuclear Deterrence. This is the deterrence accrued by a nation when it possesses a nuclear weapon, and is studied separately because nuclear weapon exchange is likely to have such substantial effect to both the parties that it would force any nation irrespective of its size to ponder on the effects of such an engagement, hence forcing the dilemma of cost-benefit ratio in the minds of leaders of both the sides. Thus a weaker/smaller nation which faces a superior nation always opts for a nuclear deterrence, as was evident after the end of the Second World War, wherein the United States laid emphasis on developing its nuclear arsenal to counter the numerical superiority of the erstwhile USSR. Nuclear deterrence theory consists of six key elements  [6]  , which have to be satisfied to be of any effect, these are:- The assumption of a very severe conflict. The assumption of rationality. The concept of retaliatory threat. The concept of unacceptable damage. The notion of credibility. The notion of deterrence stability. Conventional Deterrence in Relation of India Pakistan India as a nation possesses all ingredients to effectively deter Pakistan in as far as conventional deterrence is concerned. However, this was not always the case, as after independence being of roughly comparable size both in economic and military strengths, India had limited deterrent capability. Although India did enjoy numerical superiority in its armed forces it was hardly sufficient to act as a deterrent for its new neighbour, coupled with the fact that Pakistani military leadership wrongly hypothesised that there soldier were better than their Indian counterparts and any advantage accrued due to numerical superiority was more than compensated. Their belief of superiority was further fortified when as part of its alliance with the US they received technologically advanced weaponry hence achieving qualitative edge over India. This myth carried by the Pakistani elite for a considerable period of time, manifested in the various wars which the two nations have since fought. However this misconception of its superior relative strength came crashing on the Pakistani leadership in 1971 when facing the full potential of the Indian military, it was not only defeated convincingly but also lead to it being bifurcated. Post 1971 there was no conventional conflict as India successfully deterred Pakistan, which till then was always the aggressor. This deterrence that India possessed was for the following reason:- Conventional superiority of the Indian military infrastructure both as quantitatively well as qualitatively. Economic superiority, considering the size of Indian economy vis-à  -vis that of Pakistan. Diplomatic strength wherein India had a larger clout in the comity of nations including Islamic states, being considered a peace loving nation which is actively involved in various international forums. Effectiveness of Conventional Deterrence Against Pakistan India Pakistan relationship is going through a period during which no conventional conflict has occurred between them for a long time. However, this period does not signify that of peace as India has been facing a heightened level of sub conventional threat in Kashmir from Pakistan. So the question which arises is that has India been able to achieve effective deterrence against Pakistan or not? The extent and severity of the sub conventional threat that India faced in Kashmir is clearly brought out by the figure 1. FIGURE 1 : FATALITY LEVELS IN JAMMU AND KASHMIR  [7]   The details given above make it clearly evident that though India may have deterred a conventional conflict but the same may not hold true for the sub conventional spectrum. This can be attributed to the attainment of nuclear weapons capability by Pakistan as the threat of conventional conflict reduced Pakistan adopted an aggressive policy of sub conventional operations against India  [8]  . Thus providing a political lever to the Pakistani ruling class to be exploited in international as well as national arena, while reducing the efficacy of Indian Army by embroiling it in asymmetric warfare leading to a classical case of Stability Instability Paradox, which is defined as under:- To the extent that the military balance is stable at the level of all out nuclear war, it will become less stable at lower levels of violence  [9]  . Another expert elaborates; nuclear weapons can generate risk taking because they presumably provide an insurance policy against escalation  [10]  . 23. Hence it is pertinent to note that while India enjoys substantial conventional deterrence the same seems to be ineffective when faced with a nuclear adversary which is undertaking a sub conventional operation against it. Therefore, a thorough analysis would be necessary to ascertain whether India can utilize its conventional superiority and come out of the stability-instability logjam, thus leading to the end of strife in Kashmir. The only example which can be studied to derive suitable future courses of action would be the nuclear deterrence between the NATO and the Warsaw pact countries during the cold war. This nuclear relationship was studied extensively and a number of international relation theories formalized to explain the interaction between the two parties. The most prominent of these hypotheses, forwarded by international relations experts, in as far as conflict involving nuclear states are concerned is the Nuclear Peace Hypothesis which may shed some light on the stat us of the current relations between India and Pakistan. However the theories evolved in a different set of situations may not be fully applicable to India Pakistan relations and thus require suitable modifications to be relevant. And is it possible, at least theoretically, for India to escalate the conflict to conventional level. CHAPTER III NUCLEAR PEACE HYPOTHESIS : MANIFESTATION IN INDIA PAKISTAN RELATIONS No explanation for the current strategic situation is satisfactory without a definition of the nuclear situation; no definition of the nuclear situation is possible without knowledge of the laws that rule deterrence. Andre Beaufre Do nuclear weapons reduce the probability of war? From the starting days of the nuclear weapon development, proponents of nuclear deterrence argued that these weapons have the capacity to reduce the probability of conventional war resulting in what may be called as the Nuclear Peace. Studying the dynamics of the Cold War, some scholars have argued that this is indeed what happened. Despite large number of crises and several proxy wars, the US and USSR avoided a direct military confrontation as both feared an escalation to a nuclear plain. They suggest that unlike conventional deterrence, nuclear deterrence is extremely robust because even irrational or unintelligent leaders are likely to recognize the exceedingly high cost of nuclear war. Therefore, proponents of nuclear deterrence claim with a high degree of confidence that the probability of major war among states having nuclear weapons approaches zero. Although Cold War was fierce but it never did escalate to World War III. Indeed, some experts argue that Cold War can be thought of as the Long Peace. And despite the collapse of Eastern Block and the end of Cold War the relative period of peace continues. However, other forms of warfare (sub conventional, asymmetric warfare, etc.) have been seen in various parts of the world but no major war has broken out. So what is responsible for the absence of major wars between great powers after WWII? The three main schools of international relations (IR) theorists have each offered answers to this question  [11]  . Neo-Liberalism. As per Neo-liberals democracy, trade and international organizations are the key causes of peace. Constructivism. While constructivists view democracy, trade, and international organizations as important factors, argue that the main facilitator of the Long Peace are the evolving norms and the social construction of identity. Neo-realism. They attribute peace during the Cold War to bipolarity and nuclear deterrence. Robert Rauchhaus has quantitatively evaluated the nuclear peace hypothesis and his findings indicate that the impact of nuclear weapons is more complicated than is conventionally appreciated  [12]  . He further theorizes that when nuclear asymmetry exists between two states, a greater chance of military disputes and war exists. In contrast, when there is symmetry and both states possess nuclear weapons, then the odds of war drop drastically. When combined, these findings provide support for the existence of the stability instability paradox. Evidence suggests that while nuclear weapons promote strategic stability, they simultaneously allow for more risk-taking in lower intensity disputes. He thus gives out the following hypotheses:- Hypothesis 1. The probability of major war between two states will decrease if both states possess nuclear weapons  [13]  . Hypothesis 2. The probability of crisis initiation and limited uses of force between two states will increase when both states possess nuclear weapons  [14]  . Hypothesis 3. The probability of major war between two states will decrease or remain constant if one state possesses nuclear weapons  [15]  . Hypothesis 4. The probability of lower level conflicts will decrease or remain the same if one state possesses nuclear weapons  [16]  . Applicability of Nuclear Peace Hypothesis in India Pakistan Relations Having studied the various nuclear peace hypotheses, it will be clear that the first two would be applicable in the context of India Pakistan relations, as both countries are nuclear states. These hypotheses do hold considerably well, when we see them in relation to India Pakistan conflict, the same has been discussed in subsequent sub paragraphs:- Hypothesis 1. The probability of major war between two states will decrease if both states possess nuclear weapons  [17]  . Relations between India and Pakistan have repeatedly reached flashpoints wherein they were dangerously close to an all out war ( Kargil 1999, Op Parakaram 2001) but they somehow manged to avoid escalating the conflict into an open war, hence maintaining strategic peace. This hypothesis may also apply to the pre 1998 era where in both the nations had acquired nuclear capability but had still not come out in open. India although having conducted its first nuclear test in 1974 is said to have acquired operational capability only in early 1980s, while Pakistan is said to have attained the capability somewhere between 1986 and 1990. Hypothesis 2. The probability of crisis initiation and limited uses of force between two states will increase when both states possess nuclear weapons  [18]  . If we study the trend of sub conventional operations by Pakistan in Kashmir it would be clearly evident that the same was initiated by Pakistan on covertly acquiring the nuclear capability during the period mentioned  [19]  and then again given a fresh impetus after the 1998 nuclear tests. Thus it may be theorised, that Pakistan has used nuclear deterrence to negate Indias conventional superiority, while engaging in a sub conventional conflict. This hypothesis is also called the Stability Instabilty Paradox which was first discussed in detail by Mr Snyder in an essay in 1965. The situation is such that terrorism has become the foremost issue, which divides India and Pakistan  [20]  . And while a cursory study of the above hypotheses may lead one to conclude that the probability of fighting a conventional war is bleak, it must be understood that though the hypothesis says that a major war is unlikely between India Pakistan, a major war is defined as when one of the nation wants to completely subject the other to its will  [21]  . This is in contrast the thinking of the present military leadership, which misunderstands it with any conflict in which conventional forces are used. Thus as per the hypothesis a repeat of 1971 war may be unfeasible, but a repeat of 1965 may be a possibility, till the time the aims of the conflict are limited and both the parties are clearly aware of the same. This does have a historical example, the Sino-Soviet dispute of 1968, where both the sides had nuclear capability but since the aims of the war were limited neither parties used a nuclear weapon even when faced with an adverse outcome. Therefore there is a case for India to utilise its conventional forces, to counter the Pakistan initiated proxy war, by initiating a punitive limited objective war with Pakistan, with the sole aim of deterring it from continuance of the sub conventional war in Kashmir. Applicability of Cold War International Theories in South Asia While there may have been the Long Peace during the cold war because of nuclear deterrence, but is it applicable to the Indo Pak relation? The answer to this question is more likely to be negative for the following reasons  [22]  :- While Pakistans security concern is India centric, those of India extend beyond South Asia. Thus the relation is not a standalone interaction but is subject to pressures from external factors, which are unpredictable. This is contrary to the relation dynamics of the cold war. India Pakistan also do not enjoy the same degree of independence of action, as was available to the US and USSR. This is due to the fact that, unlike the cold war rivals who were at the top of the power hierarchy, India and Pakistan will be subject to interference/influence in their policy and decision making processes. Geographical proximity of the two countries is also a facet which did not exist in the cold war and thus both countries will be affected by wind movements and fallout in case of a nuclear attack on the other. However, the foremost reason for non applicability of the theories in South Asia is because unlike the cold war where both the sides were led by satisfied powers i.e. the powers had accepted the status quo in Europe which was concretized by the Helsinki process, Pakistan is a revisionist state. Wherein Pakistan wants to change the status quo in South Asia w.r.t. Kashmir  [23]  . However to postulate feasibility for use of conventional forces for punitive action against Pakistan, it would be prudent to study Pakistans nuclear capabilities and command control setup besides the international relation theories. are feasible not only as per international relations theories but also practical in view of the nuclear weapons capability that Pakistan possesses and the nuclear command control structure it has in place to use a nuclear weapon against India. This is because to have an extremely low nuclear threshold, as Pakistan professes to have, it requires certain capabilities and infrastructure to be in place which is still deficient. Hence it is necessary to study the nuclear capability and command control setup of Pakistan. CHAPTER IV PAKISTANS NUCLEAR WEAPONS CAPABILITY AND COMMAND CONTROL SETUP Deterrence is greatest when military strength is coupled with the willingness to employ it. It is achieved when one sides readiness to run risks in relation to the other is high; it is least effective when the willingness to run risks is low, however powerful the military capability. Henry Kissinger The foundation for the India Pakistan conflict is complex, Pakistans fears about India are not only because of the imbalance of power and Indian ambition for regional power status, but also because of the pre Partition conflict and divergent ideas of nationalism  [24]  . Since independence the relations between the two countries have never been normal or even

Stages of Developing a Psychiatric Treatment Care Plan

Stages of Developing a Psychiatric Treatment Care Plan A patient had been admitted to an A E unit after committing ‘deliberate self-harm’. He had attempted to commit suicide by overdosing on some headache tablets. When that hadn’t worked he slashed himself in several places using a kitchen knife. He arrived at the A E unit in an extremely distressed state. Why the psychologist was called in Although the patient clearly had very severe physical injuries a comprehensive psychosocial assessment revealed he was suffering from severe psychological problems. His symptoms seemed to suggest clinical depression that was so deep-rooted and severe it necessitated intensive and sustained psychotherapy. Thus, it was decided to immediately refer him to a clinical psychologist. This is consistent with professional guidelines, which recommend that self-harm patients are referred for psychological intervention if an initial psychosocial assessment reveals an underlying psychological problem (NICE, 2004, p.32). A clinical psychologist is formally trained to deal with various forms of psychopathology, including clinical depression, based on psychological theories and research (Davey, 2004, pp.713-714). In addition to carrying out in-depth psychological evaluations, to identify underlying psychopathology (using a wide variety of personality and neuropsychological tests, and clinical observ ation), the psychologist is trained to make a formal diagnosis, using set criteria. Clinical psychologists and psychiatrists have very similar training. However a clinical psychologist rather than psychiatrist was called in to deal with this case because the latter are primarily medical doctors, and hence typically use the ‘medical model’ for dealing with psychological disorders. Psychosocial assessment suggested that this patient primarily required intensive psychotherapy rather than medication. Theoretical concepts The clinical psychologist relied upon Sigmund Freud’s psychoanalytic theory in formulating a treatment plan (McMillan, 2001, pp.599-600). Freud’s conceptualisations have had a massive impact on popular culture, and psychology and psychiatry in particular. Psychoanalytic theory posits that unconscious conflict, often emanating from childhood, and involving forbidden sexual and aggressive desires causes psychopathology. A distinction is made between the conscious (awareness), preconscious (memories that are readily accessible), and unconscious (repressed memories of which a person may not even be aware). Superimposed against these levels of consciousness are three components of human personality: the id (basic biological drives), the ego (restrictions imposed by external reality), and superego (conscience). The id operates at the subconscious level, while the ego and superego function at the preconscious and conscious levels. Perpetual and intense conflicts between the id and the other two components can generate considerable anxiety and, if unresolved, mental health problems. Psychoanalysis places considerable emphasis on the sex drive, or ‘libido’. Humans are thought to progress through several stages of psychosexual development. Fixation at any one stage results in various emotional problems. What the psychologist did During the initial session with the patient the clinical psychologist immediately set up a good rapport with the patient. The priority was to assess the patients’ problem, and develop a comprehensive treatment plan with clear goals for recovery. After an initial session the patient underwent numerous sessions involving free association, a therapeutic form of psychoanalysis (McMillan, 2001, pp.167-168). During this procedure, the psychologist encouraged the patient to verbalise whatever came to mind. Free association is considered to yield clues about the subconscious roots of a patients’ problem. The patient spoke a lot about his childhood. From time to time the therapist probed with searching questions encouraging the patient to elaborate on particular statements made. During each session the psychotherapist maintained an empathic and non-judgemental demeanour, in order to facilitate a high degree of trust between himself and the patient. The patient attended weekly se ssions over a six-month period. During the final month of therapy the clinician engaged in dream analysis, whereby the patient was asked to describe recent dreams in as much detail and with as much accuracy as possible. How the psychologists’ input was assessed By the end of therapy it had gradually become clear that the patient had been experiencing intense homosexual desires ever since puberty. These urges had been repressed for years, in order to conform to social norms and his parents’ wishes for him to get married and have children. The patient wasn’t conscious of these forbidden desires. The realisation made him feel much better, going a long way to explain why he had been feeling pathologically depressed, even suicidal. The impact of psychoanalytic therapy on this patient was assessed using a pre- and post-test experimental analysis (Coolican, 1994, pp.82-88). During his initial assessment of the patient the psychologist obtained baseline measures of psychiatric symptoms using the SCL-90-R (Derogatis, 1983), social functioning using the Social Adjustment Scale (Weissman, 1975), general adjustment in life, using the Global Assessment Scale (Endicott et al, 1976), and episodes of self-harm, using the Suicide and Self-Harm Inventory (Sansone et al, 1998) during the previous six months. At the end of therapy the therapist administered the same battery of tests to gauge any improvements in the patients’ mental health. Statistical analysis comparing pre- and post-test data, using a t-tested for repeated measures (Coolican, 1994, pp.281-286) showed significant improvements on all criteria: psychiatric functioning, and social/global adjustment, and frequency of self-harm. Bibliography Coolican, H. (1994) Research Methods and Statistics in Psychology, London, Hodder Davey, G. (ed) (2004) Complete Psychology . London: Hodder and Stoughton Derogatis, L.R. (1983) SCL-90-R: Administration, Scoring, and Procedures Manual,  II. Towson, Md, Clinical Psychometric Research. Endicott, J., Spitzer, R.L., Fleiss, J.L. Cohen, J. (1976) The Global Assessment  Scale: a procedure for measuring overall severity of psychiatric disturbance.  Archives of General Psychiatry, 33, pp.766–771. NICE (2004) Self-Harm: The Short-Term Physical and Psychological Management  and Secondary Prevention of Self-Harm in Primary and Secondary Care:  Clinical Guideline 16. London: National Institute for Clinical Excellence. McMillan, M. (2001) The reliability and validity of Freud’s methods of free  association and interpretation. Psychological Inquiry, 3, pp. 167-175. Sansone, R.A., Wiederman, M.W. Sansone, L.A. (1998) The Self-Harm Inventory  (SHI): development of a scale for identifying self-destructive behaviors and  borderline personality disorder. Journal of Clinical Psychology, 54, pp.973-983. Weissman, M.M. (1975) The assessment of social adjustment. Archives of General  Psychiatry, 32, pp.357–365.

Class Distinictions in Pygmalion Essay -- essays papers

Class Distinictions in Pygmalion Pygmalion, by George Bernard Shaw, is a thrilling drama in which a scientist of phonetics tries to transform a cockney speaking Covent Garden flower girl into a woman as poised and well-spoken as a duchess. The play considers some of the illusions of the class distinctions. This is represented by the characters, their situations, and their aphoristic comments. Eliza Doolittle starts out as a sassy, smart-mouthed flower girl with disgraceful English. See goes to see Professor Higgins to see if he will teach her to speak properly and act more like a lady. This also would require her to become a high-classed member of society. I want to be a lady in a flower shop stead of sellin at the corner of Tottenham Court Road. But they wont take me unless I can talk more genteel. He said he could teach me. Well, here I am ready to pay him–not asking any favor–and he treats me zif I was dirt. (1160) That was the flower girl, Eliza Doolittle, talking to Colonel Pickering about how she want to become a lady and how Mr. Higgins refused to help her because she belongs to the lower-classed section of society. Later she finally convinces Mr. Higgins to help her, but to him she is just an experiment of phonetics. Mr. Higgins is a high-classed professor of phonetics. He believes in concepts like visible speech, and used all manners of recording and photographic material to document his phonetic subjects. This reduces people and their dialects into what he sees as easily understandable units. However, he is also a very eccentric man. He goes in the opposite direction from the rest of society for most matters. He is also very impatient with high so... ...g life means making trouble. Theres only one way of escaping trouble; and thats killing things. Cowards, you notice, are always shrieking to have troublesome people killed (1199). That was Mrs. Higgins talking to Liza. This comment that she made was definitely an aphorism. This is because she was making a wise observation on trouble in life. She is saying that all parts of life including all social classes have some trouble in them, but that is what makes it life. Without trouble life would be boring and pointless. The fact that Pygmalion contains illusions of class distinctions is clearly shown through the characters, their situations, and their aphoristic comments. In Eliza’s quest to become a lady she had to deal with many social class problems, however, she overcomes them with the help of Hr. Higgins and becomes a high class lady.

Foreign Aid Programs are Good Politics Essay examples -- Politics Poli

  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚     Ã‚  Ã‚   Americans have historicly had many outlooks on foreign relations and the country's proper place in them.   On one extreme is the idea that the US government should use it's power and influence as a globally acknowledged superpower to take a leading role in world affairs, to use it's military strength to help promote peace and stability.   The other side is that America is not the world's policeman, that we must put our own interests as a nation first.   The US Taxpayers Party, a recent addition to the list of nationally recognized political parties, leans clearly towards the second side.   In their party platform, which can be found at http://www.USTaxpayers.org/ustp-96p.html, they call for US withdrawal from all foreign alliances and international agencies.   The affects of many aspects of our current foreign policy make their stance partly understandable.   But it would be unreasonable to adopt such an isolationist policy with the changing dynamics in the w orld as well as our own country.         Ã‚  Ã‚   The easiest argument to restrict our dealings with the international community can be summed up in one word: the Constitution.   Many read the clauses dealing with treaties and alliances as providing a basis of foreign policy to serve the best interests of the nation (USTP Party Platform).   Nowhere does the US Constitution imply that the government is obligated or even allowed to take on the problems of the world, or to use the nation's resources to act in any way other than to directly further its interests. But the Constitution was written many years ago, when the nation was smaller, not nearly the global power it is today.   The writers had no way of predicting how much it would change in o... ... Jr.   "Sino-American Relations: Back to Basics." The   Ã‚   Electronic Newsstand.   1996.   Ã‚   http://www.enews.com/magazines/foreign_policy/archive/961001-002.html   Ã‚   (7 March 1997).    Fosters Moffet, George.   "US Foreign Policy Successes Brighten Clinton's 1996   Ã‚   Bid." The Christian Science Monitor.   1995   Ã‚   http://www.fosters.com/FOSTERS/info/d1/d2/d1/d4/d4/public/bc0925a.htm   Ã‚   (7 March 1997).       Enews 003 Sopko, John F.   "The Changing Proliferation Threat."   The Electronic   Ã‚   Newsstand.   1997   Ã‚   http://www.enews.com/magazines/foreign_policy/current/970101-002.html   Ã‚   (7 March 1997)    Speaker Whitley, Darren.   "Speaker calls for change in foreign policy." Collegian.   Ã‚   http://www.spub.ksu.edu/ISSUES/v100/SP/n116/cam-foreign-policy-whitley.   Ã‚   html   Ã‚   (7 march 1997)         

Environmental Hazards Essay

If someone was to ask you, â€Å"What is an open dump? † What would you say? Would you know what to tell them? An open dump is abandoned piles of household garbage, bags of yard waste, appliances, old barrels, used tires, and demolition debris can threaten the health of wildlife, the environment, and humans. They can cause such health, environmental, and safety issues as fires or explosions, the inhalation of toxic gases, injuries to children playing in or around the dumpsites (I have personal experience of cutting my foot on broken glass as a child playing in an open dump), diseases carried by flies, rodents and mosquitos, and other hazards. Open Dumps, 1996 – 2011). Early Landfill Believe it or not, landfills go way back in history. Of course, back then they were called â€Å"garbage dumps. † For instance, early American settlers used to deal with their garbage by dumping it over the back fence, burying it in their back yards, or dumping it in rivers. They also would burn their garbage. (Amsel, 2005 – 2013). We can go even further back in history with this subject. Case in point: Did you know the cause of the bubonic plague (14th century) was too much garbage in the streets? Allow me to explain. The bubonic plague, also called, the â€Å"black death,† spread through Africa, Asia, nd Europe, killing 75 million people. What these people did not know at the time was they had too much garbage in their streets. There was so much it was in piles. These piles of garbage in turn attracted rats. The rats had fleas. The fleas carried the disease. With rats carrying the disease from place to place, the lack of sanitation made it the worst epidemic in human history. (Amsel, 2005 – 2013). Many of the early landfills were made in wetlands. These wetlands were thought to be wasteland at that time. These landfills leaked into lakes and rivers and built up gases, such as methane. As garbage rots, it gives off a flammable gas, called methane. Because of this many garbage dumps would catch fire or explode! The first garbage burning plant was built in 1885 in New York on Governor’s Island. It was called an â€Å"incinerator. † There were 300 incinerators burning garbage in the U. S. by 1914. (Amsel, 2005 – 2013). Leachate – The most serious problem with landfills is groundwater contamination. As water percolates through the ground (like water does in a coffeemaker), chemicals can be released in the ground and get carried along in a process called leaching. The resulting water with the various pollutants is called leachate. As the water percolates through Municipal Solid Waste (MSW), a noxious leachate is generated that consists of residues various decomposing organic matter mixed with various metals from rusting items in the landfills. This can funnel directly into the groundwater without correct precautionary measures. (Wright, 2011). Methane – Municipal Solid Waste is about 2/3 organic material. Because of this, it is subject to natural decomposition. Buried wastes are anaerobic, meaning they decompose without oxygen. A major by-product of this process produces a combination of about 2/3 methane and 1/3 hydrogen and carbon dioxide, called biogas. This is a highly flammable mixture. This has caused homes to explode at up to 1000 feet away and has caused some deaths. Also, gases seeping up to the surface have killed vegetation by poisoning their roots. (Wright, 2011). Incomplete Decomposition – Commonly used plastics resist natural decomposition because of their molecular structure. Microbes are unable to digest them because they are polymers of petroleum-based compounds. There have been biodegradable plastic polymers developed from other sources, such as cornstarch, lactic acid, cellulose, and soybean protein, as well as petroleum. Wright, 2011). Settling – Finally, as waste compacts and decomposes, it settles. This problem was recognized from the beginning and there have been no buildings built on landfills. Settling creates shallow depressions that collect and hold water. These can also be deep holes. This can be addressed by continuous monitoring and filling to restore it to a level surface. (Wright, 2011). Modern Landfill Modern landfills are designed to address the previous mentioned issues. The EPA (Environmental Protection Agency) has upgraded requirements for landfill siting. New landfills are to be sited well above the water table on high ground. The floor is contoured so water drains into a tile leachate collection system. The sides and floor are covered with a plastic liner and at least two feet of compacted soil. This allows any percolating leachate to drain into the leachate collection system and be treated as necessary. Layers of refuse are positioned so the fill is built up in the shape of a pyramid. It is then with at least 18 inches of earthen material and then seeded. This cap and the pyramid shape help the landfill in shedding water. The entire landfill site is surrounded by groundwater monitoring wells and periodically checked. This checking must go on indefinitely. (Wright, 2011). Mariannhill Landfill, South Africa I chose the Mariannhill Landfill, South Africa for innovative practices in making it more productive and reducing its environmental impact. In reading the description of this landfill, it seemed more like a recreation area and less like a landfill. I could tell a lot of thought and planning went into this. This landfill contains several â€Å"cells† to hold waste. Soil from the landfill area is removed and put in storage. The resulting hole is the cell. Once the cell is full the soil is replaced. Vegetation is also removed and placed in a large holding nursery on the site. This is called Plant Rescue Unit or PRUNIT. There is a barrier system in each cell to prevent harmful waste by-products from seeping into the environment. Leachate is treated on site. This is done by a biological primary treatment with sludge followed by a â€Å"polishing treatment† by a reed bed. The Mariannhill site treats landfill water to reduce leachate until the water is reusable. Mariannhill has also set up a landfill gas extraction scheme. It has been operational for four years as of 2008. It also has a bird hide and conservation area with nature trails that link up with existing green space in the metro. (Mariannhill Landfill Conservancy, 2008). This has been a truly eye-opening assignment. Little did I realize as a child that some of the areas I was playing in were so dangerous. I’m not sure if my parents knew, but they always told me to stay away from places like that. I am so thankful these places (older landfills and â€Å"dumps†) are practically figments of the imagination now. We need to take better care of our planet! Let’s all chip in!

Forest Life Changes the Characters in As you like it, do you agree? Essay

In Shakespeare’s As you like it, we find the characters attempting to escape the court. What they specifically are escaping from are the ‘briars’ of the ‘working day world’. The imagery of briar bushes specifically enacts a form of entanglement; that the world of the court is entrapping and the people in it are reflected as such. What is ‘comely envenoms him that bears it’, highlighting a reverse polarisation of morality, that what is good is a hindrance in the world of the court. This is paralleled by what Touchstone (who represents the court as a jester, whom were always in the service of the court) says; ‘The sweetest nut hath the sourest rind’. Indeed, the usurper is viewed as the rightful ruler of the court whereas the rightful ruler is branded an outlaw. So the characters escape to the forest in order to cleanse themselves of ‘th’infected world’ (Playing upon the previous mention of ‘envenoms’ as a form of physical affliction that requires cathartic release). One can argue that the characters do respond to the forest, and their characters change as such. One particularly significant example is how Shakespeare constructs the forest as a place of alternative knowledge; Duke Senior finds that the ‘winds are his councillors’ and that the ‘trees shall be my (his) books’, that they find ‘sermons in stones’. This highlights the homiletic edification that occurs when one engages with nature, and indeed, this is paralleled by the discourse expressed between Rosalind and Celia in Act I, where they comment on how fortune (A product of the court) and nature (Of the forest) are at odds with one another; ‘Fortune reigns in gifts of the world/not in the lineaments of natu re’. The escapism of the forest is further expressed when the gentlemen become ‘merry men’ and ‘brothers in exile’ highlighting how they are able to ‘fleet time as they did in the golden age’, with the ‘merry men’ alluding exclusively to the notion of ‘Robin hood’, who represents an active rebellion against the court, suggesting an underlying romanticisation of what it is to be an outlaw. Indeed, defying social norms appears to be what the forest epitomises, and as such, Rosalind even changes all perception of her by becoming ‘Ganymede’, she essentially dresses up to become someone different. Finally, we find the two main ‘villains’ of the story; Duke Frederick and Oliver have a very quick change of heart from the forest, which in both cases turn out to be spectacular examples of Deus Ex Machina, both being equally contrived but portrayed as legitimately woven into the story. So in that sense, the forest is a healing force. However, there is an argument for the opposite; that the forest is exactly the same as the court and no significant change occurs. One of the biggest examples of this lies in the speech of Lord 1 regarding the murder of a deer. The deer are portrayed as ‘native burghers’ in their own ‘desert city’, who retreat ‘from the hunters aim’ into a ‘sequestered’ ‘languish’. Jaques remarks then about how the foresters are the ‘mere usurpers’ who ‘kill them up/in their assign’d and native dwelling place’. This is particularly significant because a parallel is drawn between the deer and the foresters, the deer is escaping usurpation in much the same way the foresters are, this is further enhanced by the fact that the deer has a ‘leathern coat’, a deliberate wording by Shakespeare to highlight the parallels it has with its human usurpers. This usurpation is shown elsewhere in the book, R osalind who buys the shepherds ‘passion’ (Livelihood) because it is ‘much upon her fashion’, suggesting a transitory or arbitrary desire, devoid of consideration for the fact that the shepherd derives his survival from his flock. Indeed, she wishes to ‘waste her time’ here, rather than use it for any meaningful purpose. Other aspects of the court are also filtered into the forest to enact a distinct lack of change. The notion of the ‘merry men’ and ‘brothers in exile’ is immediately undermined by the fact that the duke is referred to as ‘your grace’, implying that the hierarchy of society is still in place, despite their attempts to gloss over it. Indeed, the very nature of them dressing up as foresters when they are in fact ‘gentlemen’ enacts the nature of the ‘painted pomp’ that is alluded to when referring to the court. The word ‘pompous’ implies a level of self-importance and unnecessary grandiose, which is ever present in the forest; ‘to blow on whom I please’ (IE, to do as I wish). Conventionally in the pastoral, the return to ‘reality’ (In this instance, the court) is forced due to the ephemeral nature of Arcadia. However, at the end of the play here, we find that the characters easily cast off their ‘disguises’ as if they had never left, willingly returning to the court, signifying that there must have been little difference between the two worlds, and emphasising the fact that the court has been a constant throughout the play. One of the most famous quotes of the play, ‘All the world is a stage’ is particularly significant here also. Throughout the story, the ‘motley coat’ (Emblematic of the fool) has been alluded to, and it represents the ‘players’ and by extension, the audience as a whole. If we are all ‘players’ as in a play, with ‘their exists and entrances/and many parts’, then we are all fundamentally acting like the foresters all the time, we all are part of the same outcome. Indeed, at the very end, we all are ‘sans teeth, sans taste, sans everything’, emphasising the fact we all end up subjected to time and age, no better for our experiences in life. This is particularly ironic of course, because earlier on in the story, the forest is described as having ‘no clock’, but it is infact time that undoes all as expressed in this passage, enacting the futility of escape and the absence of any change in outcome fro m action. Finally, we have the ephemeral nature of the escape for the audience. As alluded to in the preceding paragraph, the audience are ‘players’ and actors in the play to, but do they change? At the very end, within the epilogue, Rosalind breaks the fourth wall, essentially undermining the experience of the play, returning the audience from the ‘forest’ (The imaginative space of the play) to the ‘court’ (Reality). She directly remarks upon the fact that it is a play, that it is a constructed narration and further commends it to be watched by the friends of the audience (Cementing the notion of ‘realism’ in the fact that the play is a commercial enterprise at heart, not a creative escape).